Foreign Language Instruction:

Implementing the Best Teaching Methods

                                                            By: R. K. Goswami

From preschool parents to Pentagon chiefs, people are calling for more foreign language instruction.1 Factors driving the demand include China’s economic growth, which has prompted the College Board to add Chinese to its list of Advanced Placement tests.

Essential

Information for

Education Policy

Published by the American Educational Research Association

Meanwhile, President George W. Bush, citing national security concerns, has called for the expanded teaching of languages not typically offered in public schools, including Arabic, Farsi, and Chinese. Also fueling interest are the growing ranks of “heritage” language students who are raised in homes where a language other than English is spoken. At the same time, more parents and schools are recognizing the value of preparing even very young children for life in a broad international community. In funding and implementing language programs, three questions policymakers and instructors often ask about foreign language learning and teaching are:

4At what age should foreign language learning start?

4What teaching methods should be used?

4To what extent is there a special aptitude for foreign language learning?

Should Foreign Language

Learning Start Early?

It is now well established that young children tend to absorb relatively easily any language that they are surrounded by, and they appear to learn to speak a new language more easily than adults do.2, 3 Compared to an older student, a child’s language learning advantage is greatest in the area of pronunciation, somewhat weaker in the area of grammar usage, and slight when considering the size of their vocabulary. Still, the apparent overall benefit of early learning is leading many to implement foreign language programs in elementary school or even earlier. Is this the best or even an advisable use of resources, especially children’s time? The answer depends on what you want to achieve and how much you are willing to invest. A few hours a week of foreign language instruction focusing on learning words, songs, and a few ritualized exchanges is good for cultural exposure and appreciation, but do not expect real mastery. The implication of the research is not so much that one should start language teaching early — say, age 6 — and expect spectacular results, but rather that the teaching should be age appropriate. When considering the “earlier is better” approach, three points often are

overlooked:

4A young child tends to absorb a language through massive amounts of input and exposure, while explicit learning, involving rules and systematic practice, plays an important role for adolescents and adults.4

4The impact of age of learning on ultimate proficiency is not always clear cut; in other words, some child learners end up with accents and incomplete second language grammars, and some adult learners become, for all practical purposes, as skilled as native speakers.

4While young learners are more likely than older students to ultimately speak a new language like native speakers, adolescents and adults actually learn foreign languages faster.5 If proficiency is the goal, teaching young children a foreign language in an age-appropriate manner means providing a full-immersion education,6 taught by teachers who know the language well. Such programs simulate the environment of growing up with a language by:

4Integrating the second language with instruction in other subjects;

4Giving learners ample opportunities to engage in meaningful discourse with other students and teachers using the foreign language;

4Exposing learners to a variety of native speakers of the target language; and

4Focusing instruction on attaining the language skills needed for communicating about and understanding academic subject matter, not on mastering a foreign language for its own sake. Some parents and teachers may be concerned that total immersion in a foreign language could impede a child’s grasp of English and ability to learn other subjects. However, studies have shown that, while there can be an initial lag in English achievement, full immersion students catch up, scoring at least as well as other students on verbal and mathematics skills.7, 8

They may even exceed monolingual children on some measures of cognitive processing.9 Also, many language programs that call themselves “immersion” fail to produce the expected results, apparently because they do not provide an experience similar to exemplary immersion programs like those used in Canada to teach French and other foreign languages to English speakers.10, 11

Teaching Older Students

Immersion is not the only efficient way to learn a language. For older students, effective foreign language instruction includes direct teaching, systematic practice involving rules and grammar, and plenty of opportunities for conversation. It should be aimed at having students express and understand fully formed ideas and phrases, as well as learn the language’s structure. A balanced instructional approach is vital. Too much focus on meaning fails to create the knowledge

of structure necessary for anything beyond the most basic conversational skills. At the same time, while teaching structures directly is highly productive,12 an over-reliance on structure, perhaps through endless mechanical drills, can lead to the “boredom factor” — students want to actually communicate in a foreign language, not labor over the nuts and bolts. In the proper dosage, focusing on the foundations of grammar and language structures will support a student’s ability to express himself or herself readily.13 There are many ways to draw attention to the form of a language (whole words, sentence structures, stress, and intonation patterns), depending on the student’s aptitude, motivation, and previous experience and on the educational and learning goals of the student and the teaching program. Much research is available to guide educators in managing the balance between structure and meaning.14, 15, 16

Can Everyone Learn Foreign

Languages Well?

As with any type of learning, students’ individual differences have an impact on how well each one grasps a subject. For adolescents and adults, a student’s aptitude and motivation can be key factors in his or her foreign language learning.

Aptitude for language learning can be measured through specialized tests,17, 18 and large amounts of research suggest that it is the second most important language learning characteristic after age.19, 20 Foreign language aptitude consists of several components.

Research Points | Spring 2aching Language Proficiency at All Ages

Adults Need Varying Amounts of

Study Time To Reach Proficiency in

Different Languages

The power of immersion language education is reflected in the experience of immigrant students who, in effect, live in an immersion learning environment when they relocate to a new country.

In a study of immigrants who spoke Korean or Chinese at home but English outside, those who came to the United States between the ages of 3 and 7 had average English grammar test scores as adults equal to those of native English speakers. Those who arrived at later ages had less mastery of grammar as adults.

At the elite Foreign Service Institute of the U.S. Department of State, students studying full time to achieve professional speaking and reading proficiency in “easy” languages (those closest to English) spend 575 to 600 hours in class — 25hours per week plus three to four hours per day of directed self study. For languages very different from English, class time jumps to 2,200 hours, with half of that time spent in the country where the language is spoken. A typical year of college language instruction is three to five hours per week —180 hours per year at most — plus homework.

Early Immersion for Young Children

Leads to Nativelike Language Ability

Hours of Class Time Instruction

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

Far from

English

(e.g., Arabic,

Chinese,

Japanese)

Different from

English

(e.g., Farsi,

Russian,

Urdu)

Close to

English

(e.g., Dutch,

French,

Spanish)

600

1,300

2,200

Language, by Degree of Difficulty

Fact at a Glance

268.8

210

220

230

240

250

260

270

280

Native 3–7 8–10 11–16 17–39

269.3

256.0

235.9

210.3

Age of Arrival in United States

Mean Score on English

Grammar Test

Source: Johnson, J.S., Newport, E.L. (1989). “Critical Period Effects in Second Language Learning: The Influence of Maturational State on the Acquisition of English as a Second Language.” Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 21, pp. 60–99. Source: Adapted from National Virtual Translation Center (2006). “Language Learning Difficulty for English Speakers.”  http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/

november/learningExpectations.html, accessed March 31, 2006.hould Policymakers Do?

First, recognize that simply starting early does not guarantee that a language will be learned. Second, support age-appropriate foreign language teaching — a total immersion program for young children, moving toward a more explicit focus on structure for adolescents and adults. Third, be realistic with students and parents about how much foreign

language skill a few hours a week of instruction can generate, especially for preschool and elementary school learners. Such limited instruction will not lead to mastery, but it may build motivation and a “taste” for language learning. Fourth, recognize that for almost everyone, high proficiency in a foreign language will develop outside the classroom, through conversations with native speakers made possible by the skills acquired in the classroom.

1) Spear, P. (2005). “Tots Take on Foreign Words,” Chicago Tribune (July 6). Jan, T. (2005). “Along with ABCs, Some Learn Chinese,” Boston Globe (June 8). U.S. Department of Defense (2005). Defense Language Transformation Roadmap (January). 2) Johnson, J.S., Newport, E.L. (1989). “Critical Period Effects in Second Language Learning: The Influence of Maturational State on the Acquisition of English as a Second Language,” Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 21, pp. 60–99. 3) DeKeyser, R.M., Larson-Hall, J. (2005). “What Does the Critical Period Really Mean?” In J.F. Kroll and A.M.B. de Groot (Eds.) Handbook of Bilingualism: Psycholinguistic Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 89–108. 4) Muñoz, C. (2003). “Variation in Oral Skills Development and Age of Onset.” In M.P. García

Mayo and M.L. García Lecumberri (Eds.) Age and the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, pp. 161–181.

5) Snow, C.E., Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1978). “The Critical Period for Language Acquisition: Evidence from Second Language Learning,” Child Development, Vol. 49, pp. 1,114–1,128. 6) Genesee, F. (1994). Integrating Language and Content: Lessons from Immersion. Educational Practice Report 11. National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. 7) Holobow, N., et al. (1987). “Effectiveness of Partial French Immersion for Children from Different Social Class and Ethnic Backgrounds,” Applied Psycholinguistics, Vol. 8, pp. 137–152. 8) Swain, M., Lapkin, S. (1991). “Additive

Bilingualism and French Immersion Education: The Roles of Language Proficiency and Literacy.” In A. Reynolds (Ed.) Bilingualism, Multiculturalism, and Second Language Learning: The McGill Conference in Honor of Wallace E. Lambert. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 9) Bialystok, E., Martin, M.M. (2004). “Attention and Inhibition in Bilingual Children: Evidence from the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task.” Developmental Science, Vol. 7, pp. 325–339. 10) Lambert, W.E., Tucker, G.R. (1972).

Bilingual Education of Children: The St. Lambert Experiment. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 11) Swain, M., Lapkin, S. (1982). Evaluating Bilingual Education: A Canadian Case Study. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. 12) Norris, J.M., Ortega, L. (2000). “Effectiveness of L2 Instruction: A Research Synthesis and Quantitative Meta-Analysis,” Language Learning, Vol. 50, No. 3, pp. 417–528.

13) DeKeyser, R.M. (2000). “The Robustness

of Critical Period Effects in Second Language

Acquisition,” Studies in Second Language

Acquisition, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 499–533.

14) DeKeyser, R.M. (2003). “Implicit and

Explicit Learning.” In C. Doughty and M. Long

(Eds.) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition.

Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 313–348.

15) Ellis, R. (2003). Task-Based Language

Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

16) de Jong, N. (2005). “Can Second Language

Grammar Be Learned Through Listening?

An Experimental Study,” Studies in Second Language

Acquisition, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 205–234.

17) Carroll, J.B., Sapon, S. (1959). Modern

Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) Form A. New

York: The Psychological Corporation.

18) Pimsleur, P. (1966). Pimsleur Language

Aptitude Battery (PLAB). New York: The Psychological

Corporation.

19) Carroll, J.B. (1981). “Twenty-Five Years

of Research on Foreign Language Aptitude.” In

K.C. Diller (Ed.) Individual Differences and

Universals in Language Learning Aptitude.

Rowley, MA: Newbury House, pp. 83–118.

20) Dörnyei, Z. (2005). “The Psychology of

the Language Learner,” Individual Differences

in Second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ:

Erlbaum.

21) Long, M.H., Robinson, P. (1998). “Focus

on Form: Theory, Research, and Practice.” In C.

Doughty and J. Williams (Eds.) Focus on Form in

Classroom Second Language Acquisition. New

York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–41.

22) Harley, B., Hart, D. (1997). “Language

Aptitude and Second Language Proficiency in

Classroom Learners of Different Starting Ages,”

Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Vol.

19, No. 3, pp. 379–400.

23) Gardner, R.C., Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes

and Motivation in Second Language Learning.

Rowley, MA.: Newbury House Publishers.

Bibliography

including sensitivity to sound, which is important for pronunciation; sensitivity to structure, which affects a student’s grasp of grammar; and memory, which can determine how well a student learns and retains vocabulary. Furthermore, the precise impact of a student’s foreign language aptitude is affected by three important variables — age; type of exposure to the language; and “linguistic distance,” or the degree of difference between the native and the foreign language. In the end, aptitude, while difficult to define, clearly is an important factor for adolescents and adults learning a foreign language in the classroom.21, 22 In conjunction with aptitude, foreign language mastery also is enhanced when a student is sufficiently motivated to learn a language, for example, to gain employment, travel, or integrate into a community.23

Conclusion

Determining which type of foreign language instruction is best depends on a number of variables: the learner’s age, aptitude, and motivation; the amount of time available for instruction; and the difference between the native and the foreign language. For young children, starting early can lead to mastery of a foreign language — with no long-term detriment to their grasp of English — only if it is taught through a well-developed form of total immersion instruction. A program consisting of a few hours of foreign language teaching per week is not enough. Older students and adults, on the other hand, need a judicious mixture of practice and communication. Deliberate direct instruction (e.g., studying grammatical structures, memorizing lists of vocabulary words) is vital, along with ample classroom and study time. As such students progress, their instruction should become increasingly communicative and should include an extended stay abroad for greatest effect.

The Translator Machine

 > > Ranjan Kumar Goswami

This article describes a new approach to machine translator that translates English text into Bangla text with disambiguation. The translated Bengali text in English scripts is also useful for learning Bengali or Bangla language as a foreign language. At the same time the Bengali rural people who do not know English language well can understand the English matter with the translated output. The proposed approach is a new one that uses both the rule-based and transformation-based machine translation schemes along with three level parsing approaches. This is a significant contribution towards creation of a low-cost Human Language Technology (HLT). About two hundred million people in the West Bengal, Tripura (two states in India) and in Bangladesh (a country), speak and write Bangla as their first language. This English to Bangla (E2B)-ANUBAD or translator system or E2B takes a paragraph of English sentences as input sentences and produces equivalent Bangla sentences. The E2B-ANUBAD system compries of a preprocessor, morphological parser, semantic parser using English word ontology for context disambiguation, an electronic lexicon associated with grammatical information and a discourse processor. It also employs a lexical disambiguation analyzer. This system does not rely on a stochastic approach. Rather, it is based on a special kind of hybrid architecture of transformer and rule-based NLE architectures along with various linguistic knowledge components of both English and Bangla for creation of a low-cost HLT.

This article describes a new approach to machine translator that translates English text into Bangla text with disambiguation. The translated Bengali text in English scripts is also useful for learning Bengali or Bangla language as a foreign language. At the same time the Bengali rural people who do not know English language well can understand the English matter with the translated output. The proposed approach is a new one that uses both the rule-based and transformation-based machine translation schemes along with three level parsing approaches. This is a significant contribution towards creation of a low-cost Human Language Technology (HLT). About two hundred million people in the West Bengal, Tripura (two states in India) and in Bangladesh (a country), speak and write Bangla as their first language. This English to Bangla (E2B)-ANUBAD or translator system or E2B takes a paragraph of English sentences as input sentences and produces equivalent Bangla sentences. The E2B-ANUBAD system comprises of a preprocessor, morphological parser, semantic parser using English word ontology for context disambiguation, an electronic lexicon associated with grammatical information and a discourse processor. It also employs a lexical disambiguation analyzer. This system does not rely on a stochastic approach. Rather, it is based on a special kind of hybrid architecture of transformer and rule-based NLE architectures along with various linguistic knowledge components of both English and Bangla for creation of a low-cost HLT.

Introduction:

Bangla language is characterized by a rich system of inflections (VIBHAKTI), derivation, and compound formation [5,6,7] and, that is why the NLE using Bangla (output generation) is a very challenging task.

Natural Language Engineering (NLE) is the process of computer analysis of input provided in a human language (natural language) and conversion of this input into a useful form of representation. The input of a NLP system can be: written text or speech. This paper is concerned with the written text only. In order to process written text, we need: (a) lexical, (b) syntactic, (c) semantic knowledge about the language and (d) discourse information along with real world knowledge.

The purpose of lexical processing is to determine meanings of individual words. Syntactic analysis deals with syntactic structure. Semantic analysis deals with the context- independent meaning representation whereas the discourse processing deals with final meaning representation.

The term ontology simply denotes a group of "concepts" organized to reflect the relationships between the concepts. A lexicographer has the primitive task of building of ontology. Each word forms a class in which more than one entity can be included. Suppose there are words like biscuits, pizza, cake etc. All these words can be put under a single category i.e., Food (edible one). This type of categorization can be performed through the is - a - kind - of relation. Such information is useful for the purpose of context disambiguation. The E2B-BANGAUBAD system employs such ontological analysis also.

The proposed translator (E2B-ANUBAD) uses (i) the grammar for the input or source language, (ii) a source -to - target language dictionary, (iii) a set of source -to - target language rules, and (iv) an exception handler.

The E2B Translator System:

This English to Bangla (E2B) translator is based on a special architecture of rule-based and transformer architecture. It is based on 300 rules. More rules are being developed. It is upgraded with linguistic knowledge architecture also. The system is enriched with morphological parser, semantic parser along with ontological analyzer, disambiguation processing, and discourse analyzer [1,2,3,4,8,9,10]. The system has been developed using VB 6.0 and MS Access 2000. To begin with, the lexicon comprises of 2500 English words only. The E2B translator system's user interface for input and output is shown below. This interface shows a paragraph of English (input) sentences in the upper text box and the translated paragraph of Bangla (output) sentences in the lower text box.

The system is capable handling a word that is not present in the lexicon. It is capable of handling lexicon disambiguation (a word with multiple part - of - speech tags or with multiple meanings) also. For example, the word "Light" (in English) has multiple POS tags namely, verb, adjective and noun. Light (v) means Jwalao (in Bangla). Light (Adjective) means Halka (in Bangla). Light (noun) means Baati (in Bangla). Again, the E2B-BANGANUBAD system is capable of context disambiguation also.

For example, for the input sentence in English like, "I had a Pizza," the E2B-BANGANUBAD's output is "Aami Ekta Pizza Kheyechhilam," (in Bangla). Or, for the input sentence "I had a dog", the system's output is "Aamar Ekti Kukur Chhilo" (in Bangla). The word "had" has two different context meanings. Again, for an example of POS disambiguation, the system's output is "Aamra Jol Khai'' for the input English sentence - "We drink water"(water as noun). Or, for the input sentence - "Water the tree" (water as a verb), the system's output is "Gaachh Tite Jol Dao". Or, for the input sentence - "This is a water tank" (water as an adjective), the system's output is "Eti Joler Tank".

This system does not use any pre-tagged English corpus because it is not a stochastic approach. We have not used Hidden Markov Model (HMM) also. E2B- BANGANUBAD uses its in-built POS tagger only.

Conclusion:

This system is capable of handling the most challenging "disambiguation" aspects of NLE through semantic net analysis. The E2B-BANGANUBAD Translator system is not exactly based on any conventional rule-based, stochastic or transformation based NLE. This is based on a special kind of hybrid architecture of rule-based and transformer system along with an integrated parser for both morphological and semantic analysis. This system gives only a unique translated output sentence against an English sentence. Much attention is given in developing such a complex NLE translator system to generate a deterministic output sentence for an input or a source sentence. Both the lexicon and context disambiguation processing have been incorporated to work satisfactorily. This system incorporates also various linguistic components like Bangla inflections (Vibhakti), derivation, Karaka (endings) and compound formation also. The system is easily upgradable with new grammatical rules and lexicons. Study is going on towards enhancing this translator. This is a low cost domain independent translator system aiming to produce reliable output with high performance and higher accuracy and dedicated to rural Bengalee people for understanding English text. This is a significant step forward toward creation of an affordable HLT.

Acknowledgement: Author is thankful to Dr. A.B. Saha, Executive Director, CDAC, Kolkata, for his encouragement.

References:

1. Akshar Bharati, et al., "Natural Language Processing," PHI, 2000.
2. Wingrad, Terry, "Understanding Natural Language," Academic Press, New York, 1972.
3. D. Jurafsky and J.H. Martin, "Speech and Language Processing," Pearson Education, 2000.
4. Ma Quing, "Natural Language Processing with Neural Networks," Language Engineering Conference 2002, Hyderabad.
5. Goutam Kumar Saha, et al, "Computer Assisted Bangla POS Tagging," Proceedings of the International Symposium ISTRANS 2004, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2004.
6. K.C. Dash (ed.), " Indian Semantics," Agamakala Publications, Delhi, 1994.
7. Bamondeb Chakroborty, "Uchchotoro Bangla Byakaron," Akshay Malancha, 2003.
8. Akshar Bharati, et al, "A Computational Grammar for Indian Languages Processing, " Indian Linguistics Journal, 52, 91-103, 1991a.
9. Goutam Kumar Saha, "BANGANUBAD - An English to Bangla Translator," in press, International Journal CPOL, 2005, USA.
10. Goutam Kumar Saha, "Bangla Text Parsing with Intelligence," Proceedings of the International Conference MS'05, 2005, Morocco.

The Vedas : A Short Interpretation

      > R. K. Goswami

The most sacred scriptures of Hinduism are the Vedas ("Books of Knowledge"), a collection of texts written in Sanskrit from about 1200 BCE to 100 CE. As sruti, the Vedas are regarded as the absolute authority for religious knowledge and a test of Hindu orthodoxy (both Jains and Buddhists reject the Vedas). "For Hindus, the Veda is a symbol of unchallenged authority and tradition." {1} Selections from the Vedas are still memorized and recited for religious merit today. Yet much of the religion presented in the Vedas is unknown today and plays little to no role in modern Hinduism.

As historical and religious literature often is, the text is written from the perspective of the most powerful groups, priests and warrior-kings. Scholars say it is therefore unlikely that it represents the totality of religious belief and practice in India in the first millennium BCE. This perspective is especially evident in the earlier parts of the Vedas, in which the primary concerns are war, rain, and dealing with the "slaves," or native inhabitants of India.

Initially, the Vedas consisted of four collections of mantras (Samhitas), each associated with a particular priest or aspect of ritual: Rig Veda (Wisdom of the Verses); Sama Veda (Wisdom of the Chants); Yajur Veda (Wisdom of the Sacrificial Formulas); and Atharva Veda (Wisdom of the Atharvan Priests).

Over the centuries, three kinds of additional literature were attached to each of the Samhitas: Brahmanas (discussions of the ritual); Aranyakas ("books studied in the forest"); and Upanishads (philosophical writings).

In these later texts, especially the Upanishads, the polytheism of the earlier Vedas has evolved into a pantheism focused on Brahman, the supreme reality of the universe. This concept remains a key feature of Hindu philosophy today.

Samhitas

As noted above, the Samhitas ("Collections") are the oldest components of the Vedas, and consist largely of hymns and mantras. There are four Samhitas (also called Vedas): Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.

The Rig Veda

Composed as early as 1500 BC, the Rig Veda or Rg Veda ("Wisdom of the Verses") is the oldest of the four Vedic collections and one of the oldest surviving sacred texts in the world. The Rig Veda consists of 10,552 verses (collected into 10 books) of hymns and mantras used by the hotri priests.

The hymns of the Rig Veda focus on pleasing the principal gods Indra (war, wind and rain), Agni (the sacrificial fire), Surga (the sun) and Varuna (the cosmic order) through ritual sacrifices. Along with governing important matters of life such as rain, wind, fire and war, the Vedic gods also forgive wrongdoing (5.85.7) and mete out justice in the afterlife (1.97.1).

Deceased ancestors are able to influence the living (10.15.6), so they are also appeased with rituals (10.15.1-11). The afterlife of the Rig Veda is eternal conscious survival in the abode of Yama, the god of the dead (9.113.7-11). It is the gods, not karma, that are responsible for assuring justice in this life and the next (7.104).

Yajur Veda and Sama Veda

Both the Yajur Veda ("Wisdom of the Sacrifical Formulas") and the Sama Veda ("Wisdom of the Chants") are liturgical works consisting primarily of selections from the Rig Veda. The Yajur Veda was used by udgatri priests and contains brief prose to accompany ritual acts, many of which are addressed to the ritual instruments and offerings. The Sama Veda was chanted in fixed melodies by the adhvaryu priests. Each contain about 2,000 verses.

Atharva Veda

The Atharva Veda ("Wisdom of the Atharvan Priests) was added significantly later than the first three Samhitas, perhaps as late as 500 BC. It consists of 20 books of hymns and prose, many of which reflect the religious concerns of everyday life. This sets the Arharva Veda apart from the other Vedas, which focus on adoring the gods and performing the liturgy of sacrifice, and makes it an important source of information on the practical religion and magic of the time.

Books 1 through 8 of the Atharva Veda contain magical prayers for long life, prosperity, curses, kingship, love, and a variety of other specific purposes. Books 8 through 12 include cosmological hymns, marking a transition to the loftier philosophy of the Upanishads. The remainder of the books consist of magical and ritual formulas, including marriage and funeral practices.

Brahmanas

The mythology and significance behind the Vedic rituals of the Samhitas are explained in the Brahmanas. Although they include some detail as to the performance of rituals themselves, the Brahmanas are primarily concerned with the meaning of rituals. A worldview is presented in which sacrifice is central to human life, religious goals, and even the continuation of the cosmos.

Included in the Brahmanas are extensive rituals for royal consecration (rajasuya), which endow a king with great power and raise him to the status of a god (at least during the ceremony). Part of the ritual is the elaborate horse sacrifice (asvamedya), in which a single horse is set free, followed and protected by royal forces for a year, then ritually sacrificed at the royal capital.

Aranyakas ("Forest Books")

The Aranyakas contain similar material as the Brahmanas and discuss rites deemed not suitable for the village (thus the name "forest"). They also prominently feature the word brahmana, here meaning the creative power behind of the rituals, and by extension, the cosmic order.

Upanishads ("Sittings Near a Teacher")

The word "Upanishad" means "to sit down near," bringing to mind pupils gathering around their teacher for philosophical instruction. The Upanishads are philosophical works that introduce the now-central ideas of self-realization, yoga, meditation, karma and reincarnation.

The theme of the Upanishads is the escape from rebirth through knowledge of the underlying reality of the universe. The Encyclopaedia Britannica explains how this change in perspective came about:

Throughout the later Vedic period, the idea that the world of heaven was not the end-and that even in heaven death was inevitable-had been growing. For Vedic thinkers, the fear of the impermanence of religious merit and its loss in the hereafter, as well as the fear-provoking anticipation of the transience of any form of existence after death, culminating in the much-feared repeated death (punarmrtyu), assumed the character of an obsession.

The older Upanishads are affixed to a particular Veda, but more recent ones are not. The most important Upanishads are generally considered to be the Brhadaranyaka ("Great Forest Text") and the Chandogya (pertaining to the Chandoga priests). Both record the traditions of sages (rishis) of the period, most notably Yajñavalkya, who was a pioneer of new religious ideas. Also significant are:

• Mandukya Upanishad
• Kena/Talavakara Upanishad
• Katha Upanishad
• Mundaka Upanishad
• Aitareya Upanishad
• Taittiriya Upanishad
• Prashna Upanishad
• Isha Upanishad
• Shvetashvatara Upanishad

References

1. "Vedas." Encyclopedia Brittanica. Encyclopedia Britannica Premium Service. 2004.
2. Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions
3. Oxford Dictionary of World Religions
4. Cambridge Illustrated History of World Religions
5. The Hindu Universe